1 This was a translation project sponsored by the government by order of an imperial edict. Kumarajiva (350-409) was a monk born in the Kucha region of Western China during the period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties. When the Kucha kingdom was taken over by the former Qin, he was compelled to live as a prisoner, but when that kingdom was then taken over in turn by the Later Qin, he was brought to Xian, the capital of China. After that he became a major translator of Buddhist sutras―translating the Heart Sutra, Lotus Sutra, and Vimalakirti Sutra, among others―and trained a large number of disciples. His achievements are highly regarded in the history of Buddhism. The Yao-Qin dynasty refers to the Later Qin kingdom (384-417), one of the kingdoms during the Sixteen Kingdoms period of ancient China. It is referred to as Yao-Qin because the kingdom was founded by Yao Chang. The term “Tripitaka” denotes those monks who are fully versed in the teachings of Buddhism. The Tripitaka (“three baskets”) refer to 1) the Sutras (the discourses of Shakyamuni), 2) the Vinaya (rules of conduct for the Buddhist clergy), and 3) the Abhidharma (treatises explaining the teachings of Shakyamuni)―hence, meaning someone who has mastered the entirety of the Buddhist teaching.

2 The Japanese version, on which this English translation is based, is an interpretation of the Chinese sutra. Interpolations added in the Japanese version and not found in the Chinese will be signified in this translation by parentheses. Buddhist sutras often have as their basic format Ananda recounting a sermon by Shakyamuni. Ananda is one of the ten major disciples of Shakyamuni, each of whom is “foremost” in something. Ananda, a paternal cousin of Shakyamuni, was in constant attendance of Shakyamuni and heard a great number of his lectures. Hence, he was known among Shakyamuni’s disciples as “foremost in hearing the sermons” (tamon daiichi). The merchant Anathapindika donated to Shakyamuni a park of trees, and the monastery built there was called Jetavana Monastery. The merchant’s name means “he who generously gives alms” or “he who feeds the solitary,” for that reason he is called Anathapindika. According to tradition, the merchant Anathapindika bought the land of the park owned by Prince Jeta to donate it to the monks and Prince Jeta donated the trees, for that reason it is also called the Jeta-Anathapindika Grove. Shravasti was the capital of the kingdom of Koshala in ancient India, and was one of the regions in which Shakyamuni was active.

3 The term “arhat” derives from “worthy of respect and offerings” and can also be translated simply as “worthy.” It refers to a practitioner who has attained the highest enlightenment.

4 Shariputra was Shakyamuni’s disciple foremost in wisdom (chie daiichi). He was the leader of Shakyamuni’s disciples, although he died before Shakyamuni. Along with Shariputra, Mahamaudgalyayana was one of Shakyamuni’s leading disciples and was foremost in supernatural power (jinzu daiichi). Like Shariputra, he died before Shakyamuni. Mahakashyapa was Shakyamuni’s disciple known as foremost in ascetic practices (zuda daiichi) for eliminating desire. He had a large number of followers before becoming a disciple of Shakyamuni, and led the monastic community after Shakyamuni’s death. Mahakatyayana was Shakyamuni’s disciple foremost in discourse (rongi daiichi), for explaining Shakyamuni’s lectures in an easily understandable manner. Mahakausthila was Shakyamuni’s disciple foremost in debating the Buddha’s teachings (mondo daiichi), often held in unison with Shariputra. According to one explanation, he was an uncle of Shariptura. He was born in a wealthy Brahman family, and was highly cultured. Revata was Shakyamuni’s disciple foremost in meditation (zazen daiichi) and believed to be a younger brother of Shariputra. He was praised by Shakyamuni himself for his “tranquility in austerity” (shoyoku chisoku) obtained through his practices. Suddhipanthaka followed his brother in becoming a disciple of Shakyamuni, but due to his bad memory, he could not remember even one teaching. However, under the guidance of Shakyamuni, he was able to rid his heart of desires and finally achieved arhathood during a moment of fervent cleaning. Nanda was Shakyamuni’s disciple foremost in disciplining the faculties (chobuku shokon). He was a child of Suddhodana, King of the Shaka clan, and a stepbrother of Shakyamuni. After Shakyamuni renounced secular life, Nanda was expected to become head of the Shaka clan, but following Shakyamuni’s lead he also renounced secular life. It is said that because he was a handsome young man, he was burdened by passion finally eliminated through Shakyamuni’s guidance. Rahula was Shakyamuni’s disciple foremost in esoteric practices (mitsugyo daiiichi). He was the son of Shakyamuni, born while Shakyamuni was still a prince, and followed Shakyamuni’s lead in renouncing secular life. He performed solitary practices in emulation of Shakyamuni. According to one explanation, the Miscellany of the Precious Treasury Sutra (Za baozang jing, scroll four), Gavampati and his three brothers realized arhathood after renouncing secular life to receive the teaching from Shakyamuni, expressed as follows: all phenomenon is impermanent, all that arises becomes extinguished, and with the end of arising and ceasing, comes the bliss of nirvana (shogyo mujo, zesho meppo, shometsu metchi, jakumetsu iraku). He is said to have saved the Buddha’s disciples from a flood with his spiritual powers. His name literally means King of Bulls. Pindola Bharadvaja was Shakyamuni’s disciple foremost in the “lion’s roar” (shishiku daiichi), which proclaims the Buddha’s teaching. He excelled at expounding the doctrine, but was reproved by Shakyamuni for showing off his spiritual powers before a lay audience. Due to his embarrassment, he left the fold to propagate Buddhism on his own. From ancient times in Japan, it became part of popular belief that rubbing the appropriate part of his image would heal the injury or ailment. Kalodayin was a childhood friend of Shakyamuni, who was born on the same day as Shakyamuni as the son of a minister in the Kapilavastu kingdom governed by the Shaka clan. The first portion of his name, kalo, is an appellation meaning black, whether because he was naturally dark complexioned or because his skin turned dark after having saved Shakyamuni from snake venom. There was another monk with the same name found in the Buddhist scriptures, who was repeatedly reproved by the Shakyamuni. Initially, he was not able to fully embrace his teaching, but finally was able to become an arhat due to Shakyamuni’s guidance. Mahakapphina was Shakyamuni’s disciple foremost in teaching and guidance (kyokai daiichi), especially for those who had renounced secular life. Despite having inherited the throne, he renounced secular life to follow Shakyamuni. Although having great spiritual powers, he nevertheless practiced meditation assiduously. Vakkula was Shakyamuni’s disciple foremost in health and longevity (mubyo daiichi). Despite having practiced meditation in solitude, he was nursed on his deathbed even by those disciples he had never personally guided or taught. Aniruddha was Shakyamuni’s disciple foremost in divine sight (tengen daiichi). After renouncing secular life, he was scolded by the Buddha for falling asleep during sermons; he then repented and vowed never to fall asleep again. Although he became blind as a result, he gained the spiritual power to see into the future and peoples’ hearts, thus becoming known for his divine sight. When he was sewing his robe, the Buddha helped him thread his needle since he could not see to do so himself.

5 Manjushri’s name has also been translated as “Wonderful and Auspicious” and “Wonderful Virtue,” and “Prince of Dharma”, referring to his accomplished understanding of Shakyamuni’s enlightenment. He explains core teachings in many scriptures, especially in the body of the Prajna Paramita Sutras. Ajita may be an alternative name for Maitreya. Gandhahastin is also translated as “Musky Elephant,” the etymology of which refers to the virility of a male elephant. The etymology of Nityodyukta’s name is “one who works with diligence to save all sentient beings.”

6 Indra was originally an Indian deity adopted as a guardian of Buddhism, having the characteristics of a god of thunder or a warrior god.

7 The Chinese says “in the western direction from here.” The Japanese translation adds an interpretation and description of where “here” is based on the Sanskrit term, Saha, which refers to the mundane world with the connotation of suffering. The Sanskrit term is also translated into Chinese as the “land of adversity.” Ten trillion buddha-worlds is literally “10 x 10,000 x 100,000,000.”

8 These gauze curtains, called ramo, are decorated with beads that the Sanskrit version describes as small bells. The Japanese version adds that the curtains are hanging in the sky. For more on the Japanese interpretation of the position of the curtains see also the Taima mandara kasetsu by Shōdo (1642-1701) in Nihon bukkyo Zenshu v. 63, pp. 43-44.

9 Neither the Chinese nor Japanese versions specify whether the pond is singular or plural, but the Sanskrit has it as plural.

10 The eight good qualities of water: pure, cool, sweet, soft, never drying up, calm, healing, and energizing.

11 The pavilions do not occur in the Sanskrit text; they have been pluralized here to match the ponds.

12 These are petals of the mandarava flower, the meaning of which is “that which gladdens the hearts of those who see them,” and the name of the flower is also translated as “pleasing” or “agreeable.” The petals are imagined to look like honeysuckle flowers, a common motif in Buddhism imagery. The six times are usually listed in the Buddhist scriptures as morning, noon, afternoon, evening, midnight, and dawn.

13 Hamsa is the name of the first bird as it occurs in the Sanskrit text, but the name of the bird in the Chinese text is not an exact equivalent. In any case, it is imagined to be a white waterfowl with a long bill and is variously translated into English as egret, swan, or goose. A sharika is a mythological bird translated into Chinese as a “bird of a hundred tongues.” It is also interpreted to be a myna bird because it is supposed to be able to speak human languages. A kalavinka is a mythological small bird that sings with a lovely voice. In the traditional Japanese court dance form gagaku, there is a specific dance called karyobin (Skt: kalavin) performed by a young boy wearing a vermilion red costume with brightly colored feathers. A jivamjivaka is a mythical species of hawk or eagle with two heads. The “jiva, jiva” cry of the bird means “life” in Sanskrit, and so it is also referred to as “the bird of longevity."

14 The five roots of goodness are faith, endeavor, mindfulness, mental concentration, and wisdom. These eliminate hindrances and provide the motivating power to attain enlightenment. The five powers are the next step attained after practicing the five roots of goodness, and prevent bad practices: the power of faith which obstructs false teachings, the power of endeavor which keeps the mind and body alert, the power of mindfulness which prevents false thoughts, the power of mental concentration which prevents distraction, and the power of wisdom which destroys delusion. The seven factors provide mental conditioning for attaining enlightenment: mindfulness, investigation of phenomena, endeavor, rapture, serenity, concentration, and equanimity. The Noble Eightfold Path is the method of realizing enlightenment: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.

15 A kalpa, in Sanskrit, according to one explanation is 4,320,000,000 years long. Metaphorically, it is said to be longer than it would take to empty an iron castle seven kilometers square full of poppy seeds by removing one poppy seed every hundred years, or longer than it would take to wear away a rock seven kilometers square by a heavenly maiden flying down once every hundred years to brush the rock with her robes.

16 This phrase is added in the Japanese to bridge these two paragraphs and explain their relation.

17 Only the names of many of these buddhas are known with little further information available. The conversion of their names into Sanskrit is based on the Sanskrit text found in Nakamura Hajime, et. al., Jodo Sanbukyo vol. 2 (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 2004 ed.), pp. 127-131 and 155-158.

18 A vast tongue is one of the thirty-two physical attributes of a buddha. In ancient India, touching the tongue to the nose was a demonstration of the truth of one’s words. A billion world systems in the Chinese text literally reads “three thousand great thousands” meaning one thousand to the third power . These Buddhist world systems are comprised of the “three realms”: the realm of desire, the realm of form, and the realm of non-form. The Japanese version adds that the virtue of Amitabha is praised for establishing the nenbutsu for Birth and furthermore the Buddhas offer protective salvation because their hearts were moved by the nenbutsu practitioners.

19 There is a long standing debate on whether Amitabha and Amitayus are the same buddha or not. However, here Amitayus is praising Amitabha, so it would be inconsistent if they were the same Buddha in this case. Furthermore, the Sanskrit has Amitaskandha for Amitaketu, and the latter Mahaprabhasa does not occur in the Sanskrit at all.

20 The Sanskrit has two more buddhas, Dundubhisvaranirghosa and Prabhakara, omitted from the Chinese text.

21 The Sanskrit includes Indraketudhvajaraja.

22 According to the Bodhisattvabhumi Sutra, the corruption of the age occurs when there is a change for the worse, such as the outbreak of famine, epidemic, and warfare (Skt. kalpa-kasaya; Jpn. ko-joku). The corruption of views occurs when views become based on unskillful teachings and wrong thinking (Skt. drsti-kasaya; Jpn. ken-joku). The corruption of public morality occurs when violence and fighting, and lies and fraud are accepted (Skt. klesha-kasaya; Jpn. bonno-joku). The corruption of human character occurs when there is loss of respect for seniors, no fear of punishment in the afterlife, virtues and almsgiving are not practiced, and the precepts and regulations are not obeyed (Skt. sattva-kasaya; Jpn. shujo-joku). The corruption of shortening lifespans occurs when the lifespan of human beings becomes limited to a hundred years (Skt. ayus-kasaya; Jpn. myo-joku).

23 Asura demons are one type of the demi-gods who upon hearing the Buddha’s sermon vowed to protect the Buddhist doctrine. Originally they were gods, and in later times were considered demons. In the Buddhist scriptures they often fight voraciously with other deities, but nevertheless consistently lose.